Lab result explainedMetabolic panelLast updated November 11, 2026

Fecal elastase test: normal range, what a low result means and the 200 and 100 µg/g cut-offs

Fecal elastase (FE-1) · Stool test (ordered alone or with fecal fat, calprotectin and celiac serology) · reported in µg/g of stool (micrograms of elastase-1 per gram of feces); some reports write mcg/g

Fecal elastase is a stool test that measures pancreatic elastase-1, a digestive enzyme your pancreas secretes into the small intestine. Unlike most enzymes it passes through the gut without being broken down, so the amount in a pea-sized sample of stool reflects how much enzyme the pancreas is producing. Normal is above 200 micrograms per gram (µg/g) of stool. A value between 100 and 200 µg/g suggests mild to moderate exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), and a value below 100 µg/g means severe insufficiency: the pancreas is no longer making enough enzyme to digest fat, protein and starch properly.

It is the standard first test when someone has pale, greasy, floating, foul-smelling stools, unexplained weight loss, bloating or chronic diarrhea and the question is whether the pancreas is the cause. The most common reasons for a low result in adults are chronic pancreatitis (usually from years of alcohol use or smoking) and, less often, pancreatic cancer, previous pancreatic surgery, long-standing diabetes or celiac disease. In children, cystic fibrosis is the leading cause, and nearly every child with cystic fibrosis is tested.

The test has two important limits. It is very good at detecting severe insufficiency but misses up to half of mild cases, so a normal result does not rule out early pancreatic disease if symptoms are convincing. And because it is a concentration, a watery stool dilutes the enzyme and can produce a falsely low number; a low result on a loose sample should be repeated on a formed one before anyone concludes the pancreas is failing. Pancreatic enzyme capsules do not interfere, so you do not need to stop them before the test.

FE-1 at a glance

  • What it is: a measure of pancreatic elastase-1 in stool, a stable enzyme that tracks how much digestive enzyme your pancreas is secreting.
  • Normal: above 200 µg/g of stool; many healthy people are well above 500 µg/g, and there is no upper limit of concern.
  • 100–200 µg/g: mild to moderate exocrine pancreatic insufficiency; below 100 µg/g: severe insufficiency, which almost always needs enzyme replacement.
  • Main causes of a low result: chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, pancreatic cancer or surgery, long-standing diabetes, celiac disease; a watery sample can read falsely low.
  • Enzyme supplements do not change the result, so keep taking them; collect a formed stool if you can.
  • Next step after a low result: imaging of the pancreas (CT, MRI or endoscopic ultrasound), a discussion of enzyme replacement, and checks of vitamins A, D, E and K, bone density and blood sugar.

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What FE-1 measures

The pancreas makes about 1.5 liters of enzyme-rich juice a day, and elastase-1 is one of the proteases in it. Elastase-1 binds to bile salts and resists digestion as it travels the length of the gut, ending up concentrated five- to six-fold in stool. Its concentration correlates closely with the output of lipase, amylase and bicarbonate measured by direct stimulation tests, which is why a single stool sample can stand in for an invasive tube test of pancreatic function.

The lab measures elastase-1 by an immunoassay (ELISA) using antibodies specific to the human enzyme. Because the antibodies do not recognize the pig-derived enzymes in prescription pancreatic enzyme replacement (pancrelipase), the test can be done while you are taking them. Only about 100 mg of stool is needed, and the sample is stable for several days at room temperature and longer refrigerated, so it can be collected at home and mailed or dropped off. Results usually take a few days to a week.

Against direct pancreatic function testing, a cut-off of 200 µg/g detects 90 to 100 percent of severe insufficiency, roughly 75 to 100 percent of moderate insufficiency and only about half of mild cases; specificity is around 90 percent. A 2018 meta-analysis put overall sensitivity at about 77 percent and specificity at 88 percent. The practical message is that a very low value is reliable, a normal value in someone with mild symptoms is reassuring but not definitive, and values near the cut-off are often repeated.

Normal range for FE-1

Reference ranges vary between labs and by age, sex and pregnancy. Use the range printed on your own report.

GroupTypical range (µg/g of stool (micrograms of elastase-1 per gram of feces); some reports write mcg/g)Notes
Normal pancreatic functionAbove 200 µg/gMost healthy adults are above 500 µg/g; many assays cap the report at '>500'. Labs differ slightly in their cut-offs; use the one printed on your report.
Mild to moderate exocrine pancreatic insufficiency100–200 µg/gFat digestion is reduced but symptoms may be subtle. Often repeated on a second formed sample; enzyme replacement is considered if symptoms or nutritional deficiencies are present.
Severe exocrine pancreatic insufficiencyBelow 100 µg/gClear-cut; usually accompanied by steatorrhea and weight loss, and enzyme replacement is standard. Values under 15 µg/g are typical in cystic fibrosis with pancreatic insufficiency.
Watery or diarrheal stool sampleAny value, unreliable if lowWater dilutes the enzyme. A low result on a loose sample should be repeated on a formed stool before it is acted on; a normal result on a watery sample is still valid.
InfantsNot interpretable in the first 2 weeks of lifeAdult levels are reached by about 2 weeks in term babies and later in premature babies. After that, the same 200 and 100 cut-offs apply to children.
Adults over 50 without known pancreatic diseaseAbout 1 in 10 fall between 100 and 200 µg/gMild reductions are common with age, diabetes and smoking and do not always cause symptoms. The result is read with symptoms and nutritional status.
Cystic fibrosisBelow 100 µg/g in about 85 percentRoughly 15 percent of people with cystic fibrosis are pancreatic sufficient (above 200 µg/g) and are retested periodically because function can decline.

Normal or high fecal elastase (above 200 µg/g)

There is no such thing as a harmful high fecal elastase. A value above 200 µg/g, and especially one above 500, means your pancreas is secreting plenty of digestive enzyme, and severe exocrine pancreatic insufficiency can be ruled out with confidence. Many laboratories simply report anything above their upper measuring limit as 'greater than 500'. The number does not go higher in any disease and higher is not better once you are comfortably in the normal range.

A normal result with ongoing symptoms shifts attention away from the pancreas. Greasy stools, bloating, diarrhea and weight loss have many other causes, including celiac disease, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, bile acid malabsorption, Crohn's disease, lactose intolerance, thyroid disease and medication side effects, and each has its own test. If the clinical suspicion of pancreatic disease is strong despite a normal elastase, for example in someone who drinks heavily with recurrent pancreatitis, imaging of the pancreas is still appropriate, because the test misses about half of mild insufficiency.

Enzyme replacement capsules do not raise the value, so a normal result in someone already taking them reflects their own pancreatic output, not the supplement. A value in the 200 to 250 range is normal by definition but sits close to the cut-off, and if symptoms fit, a repeat sample in a few months or a trial of enzyme replacement under supervision is sometimes offered.

Common causes

  1. Healthy pancreas

    The expected result. Elastase-1 output is preserved until roughly 90 percent of pancreatic enzyme capacity is lost, which is why most people with mild digestive complaints test normal.

  2. Celiac disease or Crohn's disease of the small bowel

    Damage to the intestinal lining causes fat malabsorption and greasy stools with a normal elastase. Celiac disease is checked with tTG-IgA; Crohn's with fecal calprotectin and imaging or colonoscopy.

  3. Bile acid diarrhea or blocked bile flow

    Fat digestion needs bile as well as enzymes. Bile acid malabsorption after gallbladder removal or ileal disease, and cholestasis from gallstones or liver disease, both cause steatorrhea with normal elastase.

  4. Small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO)

    Bacteria in the small bowel deconjugate bile salts and ferment carbohydrate, producing bloating, gas and loose stools. Diagnosed by breath testing; it can also, in severe cases, lower elastase slightly.

  5. Irritable bowel syndrome, lactose intolerance and functional diarrhea

    The most common explanations for bloating and loose stools with a normal elastase. Neither causes weight loss or true steatorrhea, which is a useful distinguishing point.

  6. Mild pancreatic insufficiency the test cannot see

    Early chronic pancreatitis and small pancreatic tumors can leave enzyme output just above 200 µg/g. A normal result does not exclude them if pain, weight loss, new diabetes or jaundice are present.

  7. Medications and other conditions

    Metformin, GLP-1 drugs, magnesium supplements, SSRIs, an overactive thyroid and excess alcohol all cause loose stools without affecting the pancreas.

Symptoms that can go with it

  • None from the result itself; a normal value is reassuring
  • Bloating, gas and loose stools that persist despite a normal result usually point to the small bowel, bile acids or a functional cause
  • Greasy, floating stools with a normal elastase suggest celiac disease, bile acid problems or Crohn's rather than the pancreas
  • Weight loss with a normal elastase still needs an explanation and should not be dismissed
  • Upper abdominal pain radiating to the back, new-onset diabetes or jaundice warrant pancreatic imaging even when the elastase is normal

Low fecal elastase (below 200 µg/g)

A low fecal elastase means the pancreas is not delivering enough digestive enzyme to the small intestine, a condition called exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. Between 100 and 200 µg/g the shortfall is mild to moderate: fat digestion is impaired, but symptoms may be limited to bloating, softer stools and slow loss of weight or of fat-soluble vitamins. Below 100 µg/g the shortfall is severe and most people have obvious steatorrhea (pale, bulky, oily stools that float and are hard to flush), cramping after meals and weight loss despite a normal appetite.

The next question is why. In adults the leading cause is chronic pancreatitis, most often from long-term alcohol use, smoking or both, and sometimes from genetic, autoimmune or obstructive causes. Pancreatic cancer blocking the duct, surgery that removed part of the pancreas or stomach, long-standing type 1 or type 2 diabetes, and celiac disease (which reduces the hormonal signal that tells the pancreas to secrete) are the other common explanations. In children the cause is cystic fibrosis until proven otherwise, followed by rarer syndromes such as Shwachman-Diamond.

Before a low result is accepted, two sources of error are checked: a watery sample, which dilutes the enzyme, and conditions that secondarily lower the reading, such as severe small bowel disease or recent severe acute pancreatitis, after which elastase can take months to recover. A confirmed low value is treated with pancreatic enzyme replacement taken with meals, which restores digestion in most people even though the number itself usually stays low, and leads to imaging of the pancreas to find the cause.

Common causes

  1. Chronic pancreatitis

    Repeated inflammation scars the gland and replaces enzyme-producing tissue; elastase typically falls below 200 once about 90 percent of function is lost, often 10 to 15 years into the disease. Alcohol and smoking account for most cases; genetic (PRSS1, SPINK1, CFTR), autoimmune and obstructive forms make up the rest.

  2. Cystic fibrosis

    Thick secretions block the pancreatic ducts from infancy. About 85 percent of people with cystic fibrosis are pancreatic insufficient, usually with elastase under 15 µg/g, and the test is used to decide who needs enzymes and to monitor the pancreatic-sufficient minority.

  3. Pancreatic cancer and duct obstruction

    A tumor in the head of the pancreas blocks enzyme outflow; roughly two thirds of people with pancreatic cancer have a low elastase at diagnosis. A new low result with weight loss, back pain, jaundice or recent-onset diabetes after 50 is a red flag for urgent imaging.

  4. Pancreatic or gastric surgery

    Removal of part of the pancreas (Whipple procedure, distal pancreatectomy) directly reduces output. After gastrectomy or gastric bypass, food and enzymes arrive in the gut out of step, and elastase is low in up to half of people even though the gland itself is intact.

  5. Diabetes

    Insulin normally stimulates neighboring enzyme-producing cells, and long-standing diabetes shrinks and fibroses the gland. Around a third of people with type 1 diabetes and 10 to 30 percent with type 2 have values under 200 µg/g, usually mild. Conversely, pancreatic disease can cause diabetes (type 3c), so blood sugar is checked whenever elastase is low.

  6. Celiac disease

    A damaged duodenal lining releases less cholecystokinin and secretin, the hormones that trigger pancreatic secretion, so elastase can be modestly low. It usually normalizes within months on a strict gluten-free diet; if it does not, the pancreas itself is reassessed.

  7. Severe acute pancreatitis

    After a necrotizing attack, elastase can be low for 6 to 12 months or longer as the gland recovers, and in about a quarter of people the loss is permanent. A low value in the first weeks after pancreatitis is repeated later before it is called chronic.

  8. Watery stool and small bowel dilution

    Diarrhea from any cause, high-output stomas, short bowel syndrome and severe Crohn's disease can push a healthy person's reading below 200 by diluting the enzyme. This is the most common reason for a false low and is why a formed sample is requested.

  9. Rarer causes

    Shwachman-Diamond syndrome and Johanson-Blizzard syndrome in children, hemochromatosis (iron deposition in the pancreas), HIV enteropathy, Sjogren's syndrome, and advanced age with pancreatic atrophy all reduce elastase, as can high-dose somatostatin analogs such as octreotide.

Symptoms that can go with it

  • Pale, bulky, greasy or oily stools that float, smell unusually foul and are hard to flush (steatorrhea)
  • Weight loss despite eating normally, or in children poor weight gain and growth
  • Bloating, excess gas and cramping that is worse after fatty meals
  • Frequent loose stools, sometimes with visible oil droplets or orange staining
  • Signs of vitamin deficiency: easy bruising or bleeding (vitamin K), night blindness or dry eyes (vitamin A), bone pain or fractures (vitamin D), muscle weakness or numbness (vitamin E)
  • Fatigue, muscle loss and low energy from malabsorbed calories and protein
  • Upper abdominal pain radiating to the back if chronic pancreatitis is the cause; often absent in cystic fibrosis and diabetes-related insufficiency

Read it alongside

  • Lipase and amylase — raised in acute pancreatitis but often normal or low in chronic pancreatitis; a low lipase with a low elastase supports a burned-out gland.
  • Vitamin D (25-hydroxy), vitamin A, vitamin E and PT/INR — fat-soluble vitamin status; deficiency of one or more is found in up to 90 percent of people with untreated insufficiency.
  • A1C and glucose — pancreatic disease causes diabetes (type 3c) and diabetes causes low elastase, so blood sugar is checked whichever came first.
  • Fecal calprotectin — distinguishes inflammatory bowel disease from pancreatic and functional causes of diarrhea.
  • tTG-IgA — celiac disease lowers elastase and is a common alternative cause of steatorrhea and weight loss.
  • 72-hour fecal fat — the quantitative reference test for steatorrhea (above 7 g of fat a day on a 100 g fat diet is abnormal); rarely done now but settles unclear cases.
  • Albumin, prealbumin, magnesium, zinc, hemoglobin and ferritin — markers of how much nutritional harm the malabsorption has done.
  • Hydrogen breath test for SIBO — bacterial overgrowth coexists with chronic pancreatitis in about a third of cases and causes similar symptoms.

What usually happens next

  1. If the sample was loose or watery and the result was low, expect to be asked for a repeat on a formed stool before anything is concluded; if it was formed and below 100 µg/g, the result is usually accepted at once.
  2. A confirmed low result is followed by imaging of the pancreas, typically a CT scan or MRI with MRCP, and sometimes endoscopic ultrasound, to look for chronic pancreatitis, a mass or a blocked duct, together with a history of alcohol, smoking, family pancreatic disease and previous attacks.
  3. Pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy is the standard treatment and is discussed with your clinician or a gastroenterologist; the dose is matched to meals and adjusted by symptoms and weight, not by repeating the elastase, which usually stays low.
  4. Expect blood tests for vitamins A, D, E and K status, A1C or fasting glucose, and often a bone density scan, because about a quarter of people with chronic pancreatitis have osteoporosis.
  5. A referral to a dietitian is worthwhile: the current advice is not to restrict fat but to eat smaller, more frequent meals with enzymes, and to correct any deficiencies found.
  6. If the result is normal but symptoms persist, ask about testing for celiac disease, bile acid malabsorption, SIBO and inflammatory bowel disease rather than repeating the elastase.

Diet, lifestyle and natural levers with evidence

What can move FE-1 once the cause is known. Nothing here replaces finding the cause.

Stop drinking alcohol

Moderate evidence

Alcohol is the leading cause of chronic pancreatitis, and continued drinking speeds the loss of enzyme output and raises the chance of further attacks and pancreatic cancer. In a randomized trial of people admitted with a first alcohol-related attack of pancreatitis, repeated counseling to stop drinking cut recurrent attacks over two years from about 1 in 3 to about 1 in 8. Abstinence does not restore lost tissue, but it is the single most effective way to preserve what remains and to reduce pain.

Stop smoking

Moderate evidence

Smoking is an independent risk factor for chronic pancreatitis, roughly doubling the risk in meta-analyses, and it accelerates calcification and the decline in pancreatic function even in people who do not drink. Quitting is associated with slower progression of both exocrine failure and diabetes in follow-up studies, and it lowers the two- to threefold excess risk of pancreatic cancer that smokers carry.

Do not cut fat; eat smaller, more frequent meals

Moderate evidence

Older advice to follow a very low-fat diet worsened weight loss and fat-soluble vitamin deficiency without relieving symptoms, and current ACG and AGA guidance recommends a normal-fat diet with enzyme replacement taken with every meal and snack. Four to six smaller meals spread the enzyme demand and are tolerated better than three large ones. A dietitian can check that calorie and protein intake match needs, which are often higher than people assume.

Over-the-counter digestive enzyme blends contain a small fraction of the lipase in prescription pancrelipase and are not a substitute for it in confirmed insufficiency.

Replace vitamin D and other fat-soluble vitamins

Moderate evidence

Vitamin D deficiency is found in 50 to 90 percent of people with pancreatic insufficiency, and a meta-analysis of chronic pancreatitis cohorts found osteoporosis in about 1 in 4 and osteopenia in another 2 in 5. Guidelines recommend measuring 25-hydroxyvitamin D and supplementing to keep it above 30 ng/mL, along with calcium, and checking vitamins A, E and K; vitamin D is better absorbed when taken with a meal and enzymes.

Very high-dose vitamin D (above 4,000 IU a day long term) should only be taken under supervision with blood monitoring, as toxicity causes high calcium.

Medium-chain triglyceride (MCT) oil

Preliminary evidence

Medium-chain fats are absorbed directly into the bloodstream without needing lipase or bile, so MCT oil can add calories when weight is falling despite enzymes. Small studies in cystic fibrosis and chronic pancreatitis showed improved weight gain and reduced stool fat when 1 to 3 tablespoons a day replaced some ordinary fat, but the trials are small and MCT provides no essential fatty acids or fat-soluble vitamins on its own.

Large doses cause cramping and diarrhea; start with a teaspoon and increase slowly.

Antioxidant combination for pain in chronic pancreatitis

Preliminary evidence

A randomized trial of 127 people with painful chronic pancreatitis found that a daily mix of selenium 600 µg, vitamin C 540 mg, beta-carotene 9,000 IU, vitamin E 270 IU and methionine 2 g for six months left 32 percent pain-free compared with 13 percent on placebo, with fewer painful days per month. A later 70-person trial found no benefit, so the evidence is mixed; the combination does not raise elastase or improve digestion.

Beta-carotene supplements increase lung cancer risk in current smokers and should be avoided by anyone who smokes; discuss selenium doses above 400 µg with your clinician.

When to see a clinician promptly

  • Severe upper abdominal pain radiating to the back with vomiting, fever or a fast heart rate: possible acute pancreatitis, which needs emergency assessment.
  • A low fecal elastase together with yellowing of the eyes or skin, dark urine, pale stools, unexplained weight loss or diabetes that started recently after age 50: pancreatic cancer must be excluded promptly with imaging.
  • Black, tarry or bloody stools, or vomiting blood, at any time.
  • Unintentional loss of more than 5 percent of body weight over 6 months, or in a child a fall across growth centiles, with greasy stools.
  • Easy bruising, nosebleeds or bleeding gums, bone pain or a fracture from a minor fall, or night vision problems in someone with known malabsorption: signs of advanced vitamin K, D or A deficiency.
  • Persistent greasy stools, bloating and weight loss even when the elastase is normal; a normal result does not end the search for a cause.

Frequently asked questions

What is a normal fecal elastase level?

Above 200 µg/g of stool is normal, and most healthy adults are above 500 µg/g; many labs report anything over their measuring limit as 'greater than 500'. There is no high value that is a problem. Labs use slightly different assays, so go by the cut-off printed on your report, but 200 and 100 µg/g are the thresholds used almost everywhere.

Is a fecal elastase of 200 bad? What about 150 or 180?

A result of exactly 200 is at the border between normal and mildly reduced. Values of 150 to 200 indicate mild exocrine pancreatic insufficiency; around 1 in 10 adults over 50 fall in this band, and whether it matters depends on symptoms, weight and vitamin levels. Most clinicians repeat the test on a formed sample and, if it is still under 200 and you have symptoms, offer a trial of enzyme replacement and arrange pancreatic imaging.

What does a fecal elastase under 100 mean?

A value below 100 µg/g means severe exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: the pancreas is producing less than about 10 percent of the enzyme it should. This is almost always real rather than a dilution artefact, is usually accompanied by greasy stools and weight loss, and is treated with pancreatic enzyme replacement with meals. It also prompts imaging to find the cause, most often chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, previous surgery or a tumor.

Can fecal elastase be falsely low?

Yes. The commonest reason is a watery or very loose sample, which dilutes the enzyme and can push a normal person's result below 200. Severe small bowel disease, short bowel syndrome, high-output stomas and the months after a severe attack of acute pancreatitis can also lower it temporarily. A low value from a loose stool should be repeated on a formed one. False highs are not a concern; a normal result on a loose sample is still valid.

Do I need to stop my enzyme capsules before the test?

No. The test uses antibodies that recognize only human elastase, so prescription pancreatic enzymes (which are pig-derived) do not register. You can and should keep taking them. There is also no need to fast or change your diet, although eating normally in the days before gives the most representative sample.

How is the sample collected and how long do results take?

You collect a small amount of stool (about the size of a pea or hazelnut, roughly 100 mg) from a formed bowel movement into the container provided, avoiding urine and toilet water, and return it the same day or keep it refrigerated. Only one sample is needed. Results typically come back in a few days to a week depending on whether the lab runs the test in house.

Can low fecal elastase go back to normal?

Sometimes. If the cause is celiac disease, a strict gluten-free diet often normalizes it within months; after severe acute pancreatitis it may recover over 6 to 12 months; and a low reading from a watery sample corrects as soon as the stool is formed. When the cause is chronic pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis or pancreatic surgery, the loss is usually permanent and the number stays low even when enzyme replacement is working well, which is why treatment is judged by symptoms, weight and vitamin levels rather than by repeating the test.

Does a normal fecal elastase rule out pancreatic cancer?

No. About two thirds of people with pancreatic cancer have a low elastase at diagnosis, which means a third do not, particularly those with small tumors or tumors in the body or tail of the gland. If you have unexplained weight loss, pain radiating to the back, jaundice or diabetes that appeared recently after age 50, a normal elastase should not stop your clinician from arranging a CT or MRI.

References

  1. Löser C, Möllgaard A, Fölsch UR. Faecal elastase 1: a novel, highly sensitive, and specific tubeless pancreatic function test. Gut (1996)
  2. Vanga RR, Tansel A, Sidiq S, El-Serag HB, Othman MO. Diagnostic performance of measurement of fecal elastase-1 in detection of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2018)
  3. Whitcomb DC, Buchner AM, Forsmark CE. AGA Clinical Practice Update on the epidemiology, evaluation, and management of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency: expert review. Gastroenterology (2023)
  4. Gardner TB, Adler DG, Forsmark CE, Sauer BG, Taylor JR, Whitcomb DC. ACG Clinical Guideline: chronic pancreatitis. American Journal of Gastroenterology (2020)
  5. Singh VK, Haupt ME, Geller DE, Hall JA, Quintana Diez PM. Less common etiologies of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency. World Journal of Gastroenterology (2017)
  6. Zsóri G, Illés D, Terzin V, Ivány E, Czakó L. Prevalence of exocrine pancreatic insufficiency in type 1 and type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pancreatology (2018)
  7. Duggan SN, Smyth ND, Murphy A, Macnaughton D, O'Keefe SJ, Conlon KC. High prevalence of osteoporosis in patients with chronic pancreatitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2014)
  8. Bhardwaj P, Garg PK, Maulik SK, Saraya A, Tandon RK, Acharya SK. A randomized controlled trial of antioxidant supplementation for pain relief in patients with chronic pancreatitis. Gastroenterology (2009)
  9. Nordback I, Pelli H, Lappalainen-Lehto R, Järvinen S, Räty S, Sand J. The recurrence of acute alcohol-associated pancreatitis can be reduced: a randomized controlled trial. Gastroenterology (2009)
  10. Andriulli A, Botteri E, Almasio PL, Vantini I, Uomo G, Maisonneuve P. Smoking as a cofactor for causation of chronic pancreatitis: a meta-analysis. Pancreas (2010)
  11. Pancreatitis. National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK) (2017)View source
  12. Chronic pancreatitis. Merck Manual Professional Version (2024)

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This page is educational and is not medical advice or a diagnosis. Lab results have to be interpreted together with your history, symptoms and other results by a clinician who knows you. Do not start or stop a supplement to change a lab value before the cause is known.