Lab result explainedKidneyLast updated November 11, 2026

Urine creatinine: normal range on a random or 24-hour test, and what high and low results mean

Urine creatinine · Urine chemistry (random/spot or 24-hour); denominator for albumin-creatinine and protein-creatinine ratios · reported in mg/dL on a random sample (SI: mmol/L; 1 mg/dL = 0.0884 mmol/L); mg per 24 hours or mg/kg/day on a timed collection; as a ratio denominator, grams (mg/g) or millimoles (mg/mmol)

Urine creatinine is the concentration of creatinine, a waste product of muscle metabolism, in a urine sample. Your muscles release creatinine at a nearly constant rate, roughly 15 to 25 mg per kilogram of body weight each day, and the kidneys clear almost all of it, so the amount in a day's urine is steady for a given person and depends mainly on muscle mass. On a random (spot) sample the concentration is usually between about 20 and 300 mg/dL, and on a 24-hour collection men excrete roughly 1,000 to 2,000 mg a day and women roughly 600 to 1,800 mg. Labs differ, and a random value on its own says more about how dilute your urine was than about your kidneys.

That is exactly why it is measured. Because daily output is constant, urine creatinine is used as a yardstick to correct other urine measurements for dilution. The urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR, in mg/g) and protein-to-creatinine ratio (UPCR) divide the albumin or protein concentration by the creatinine concentration so that a single spot sample estimates a day's excretion: a UACR under 30 mg/g is normal, 30 to 300 is moderately increased and over 300 severely increased. Drug-testing laboratories use the same logic in reverse, flagging a sample with a creatinine under 20 mg/dL as dilute. And on a 24-hour collection, creatinine is both the numerator of the creatinine clearance calculation and the check that the whole day's urine was actually collected.

Interpreting a high or low urine creatinine therefore means asking two questions: how concentrated was the sample (fluid intake, time of day, diuretics, diabetes insipidus) and how much muscle does this person have (sex, age, body size, training, wasting illness, amputation). Kidney disease enters mainly through the ratios and clearance built on top of it, though in advanced kidney failure and in liver disease daily creatinine excretion itself falls. A random urine creatinine is almost never a cause for concern by itself; it is context for the test it accompanies.

Urine creatinine at a glance

  • What it is: the concentration of creatinine, a muscle waste product excreted at a steady daily rate, in a random or 24-hour urine sample.
  • Normal random (spot) urine creatinine: roughly 20–300 mg/dL, depending mostly on how dilute the urine is. Under 20 mg/dL is considered a dilute sample.
  • Normal 24-hour urine creatinine: about 1,000–2,000 mg/day in men and 600–1,800 mg/day in women (roughly 14–26 and 11–20 mg per kg of body weight per day). Labs differ.
  • Main use: the denominator for the albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR; under 30 mg/g normal) and protein-creatinine ratio (UPCR; under 150 mg/g normal), and for calculating creatinine clearance.
  • High values mean concentrated urine or high muscle mass, meat or creatine intake; low values mean dilute urine, low muscle mass, advanced kidney or liver disease, or an incomplete 24-hour collection.
  • Next step: the value is read with the test it accompanies (UACR, UPCR, drug screen, clearance); an unexpectedly low 24-hour total usually means the collection should be repeated.

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What Urine creatinine measures

Creatinine forms spontaneously from creatine and creatine phosphate in muscle at about 1.7 to 2 percent of the muscle creatine pool per day. It enters the blood, is freely filtered by the glomeruli and, in smaller part, secreted by the tubules, and almost none is reabsorbed, so urinary excretion closely tracks production. Because production depends on muscle mass, a day's creatinine excretion is remarkably stable for one person (varying by around 10 percent from day to day) but differs widely between people: a 25-year-old 200-pound man may excrete 2,000 mg a day, an 80-year-old 110-pound woman 600 mg. Roughly 1 g of urinary creatinine per day corresponds to about 18 to 20 kg of skeletal muscle, which is why 24-hour creatinine has been used as a measure of muscle mass.

The laboratory measures urine creatinine with the same Jaffe (alkaline picrate) or enzymatic methods used for blood, after diluting the urine because concentrations are 50 to 100 times higher than in plasma. Results are reported in mg/dL on a random sample (SI units: mmol/L; 1 mg/dL = 0.0884 mmol/L) and as mg per 24 hours on a timed collection, calculated from concentration multiplied by the measured volume. For the albumin-creatinine ratio, albumin in mg/L is divided by creatinine in g/L to give mg/g (in SI, mg/mmol; 30 mg/g is about 3.4 mg/mmol).

The ratio approach has a built-in assumption: that you excrete about 1 g of creatinine a day. A muscular man who excretes 2 g a day has his UACR halved and may have early albuminuria under-called; a frail elderly woman who excretes 0.5 g a day has hers doubled and may be over-called. Guidelines accept this trade-off because the ratio is far more reliable than an uncorrected concentration and far more practical than a 24-hour collection, but they recommend a first-morning sample, which is less affected by exercise and posture, and confirmation of any abnormal ratio on 2 of 3 samples over 3 to 6 months.

Normal range for Urine creatinine

Reference ranges vary between labs and by age, sex and pregnancy. Use the range printed on your own report.

GroupTypical range (mg/dL on a random sample (SI: mmol/L; 1 mg/dL = 0.0884 mmol/L); mg per 24 hours or mg/kg/day on a timed collection; as a ratio denominator, grams (mg/g) or millimoles (mg/mmol))Notes
Random (spot) urine creatinine, adultsRoughly 20–300 mg/dL (about 1.8–26 mmol/L)Depends mostly on hydration and time of day; first-morning samples are typically 100–200 mg/dL. Labs differ and many do not print a reference range for a spot value.
Dilute sample thresholdBelow 20 mg/dL with specific gravity below 1.003Federal workplace drug-testing criteria for a dilute specimen; below 2 mg/dL with an abnormal specific gravity is classed as substituted (not human urine). Clinically, a very dilute sample makes ratio tests less precise.
24-hour urine creatinine, menAbout 1,000–2,000 mg/day (14–26 mg/kg/day)Higher with greater muscle mass, younger age and high meat intake. A total well below the expected range for body weight usually means an incomplete collection.
24-hour urine creatinine, womenAbout 600–1,800 mg/day (11–20 mg/kg/day)Lower muscle mass accounts for the difference. Excretion falls by roughly 50 percent between age 20 and 90 in both sexes.
Expected excretion for checking a 24-hour collectionRoughly 20–25 mg/kg/day in men under 50 and 15–20 mg/kg/day in women under 50; about 10–15 mg/kg/day over 70If the measured total is far lower, the collection was probably incomplete and clearance or protein results from it are unreliable.
Urine albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR)Under 30 mg/g normal to mildly increased (A1); 30–300 mg/g moderately increased (A2); over 300 mg/g severely increased (A3)KDIGO categories; in SI, under 3, 3–30 and over 30 mg/mmol. Confirmed on 2 of 3 first-morning samples over 3 to 6 months.
Urine protein-creatinine ratio (UPCR)Under 150 mg/g (0.15 mg/mg) normal; 300 mg/g (0.3) significant in pregnancy; over 3,500 mg/g (3.5) nephrotic rangeA ratio of 1.0 mg/mg approximates 1 g of protein a day in someone excreting 1 g of creatinine a day.
Creatinine clearance (from 24-hour urine)About 97–137 mL/min in men and 88–128 mL/min in womenCalculated as urine creatinine × urine volume ÷ plasma creatinine, usually corrected to 1.73 m² body surface area. Declines about 1 mL/min per year after 40. eGFR from blood has largely replaced it.

High urine creatinine

A high random urine creatinine, say 250 to 400 mg/dL, almost always means the sample was concentrated: a first-morning void, a hot day, little fluid, or several hours since the last drink. The kidneys are doing their job of conserving water, and the concentration of everything in the urine, creatinine included, rises together. A high specific gravity or osmolality on the same sample confirms this. It is not a sign of kidney damage; if anything, the ability to concentrate urine is evidence of working kidneys.

A high 24-hour total means more creatinine was produced, which comes down to more muscle or more dietary input. Large, young, muscular people, people in strength training and people who eat a lot of cooked meat (which contains creatinine formed from creatine during cooking) or take creatine supplements all excrete more. Acromegaly, hyperthyroidism and the early hyperfiltration phase of diabetes modestly raise excretion. Muscle breakdown from rhabdomyolysis, crush injury or severe exercise also releases creatine and raises urine (and blood) creatinine transiently, usually alongside a very high creatine kinase.

Because urine creatinine is a denominator, a high value lowers any ratio built on it. A muscular person with early kidney damage may have a UACR reported as 25 mg/g when their actual albumin excretion is closer to 50 mg a day, so clinicians sometimes look at the raw albumin concentration too, or interpret borderline ratios in muscular patients with more suspicion. In drug testing a high creatinine simply confirms the sample is genuine and concentrated.

Common causes

  1. Concentrated urine

    Low fluid intake, first-morning samples, sweating, fever and vomiting or diarrhea reduce urine volume and raise the concentration of creatinine proportionally; specific gravity above 1.025 goes with it. The commonest reason for a high spot value and not a kidney problem.

  2. High muscle mass

    Muscle is the source of creatinine, so large, young and muscular people, especially men, excrete up to 2,000 to 2,500 mg a day. Their albumin- and protein-creatinine ratios run lower than true excretion.

  3. Meat-heavy meals

    Cooking converts creatine in meat to creatinine; a large cooked-meat meal raises blood creatinine by about 0.2 to 0.5 mg/dL for several hours and urine creatinine with it, which is why timed collections are done on a usual, not a feast, diet.

  4. Creatine supplements

    Creatine monohydrate (3 to 5 g a day, or 20 g a day loading) expands the muscle creatine pool and raises creatinine production and excretion, typically by 10 to 20 percent. It is not kidney damage, but it should be declared before kidney tests.

  5. Intense exercise and muscle injury

    Prolonged or unaccustomed hard exercise, and especially rhabdomyolysis, release creatine from damaged muscle; urine creatinine and blood creatinine rise for a day or two, with a creatine kinase in the thousands in true rhabdomyolysis.

  6. Diabetes with hyperfiltration, hyperthyroidism, acromegaly

    Early diabetes increases GFR, and growth hormone and thyroid hormone increase muscle turnover, each raising daily creatinine excretion modestly.

  7. Over-collection of a timed sample

    Including the first void at the start of a 24-hour collection, or collecting for longer than 24 hours, inflates the total and the calculated clearance.

Symptoms that can go with it

  • None from the creatinine value itself
  • Thirst, dark yellow urine and a dry mouth when the cause is concentration from low fluid intake
  • Muscle pain, weakness and dark cola-colored urine after extreme exertion, heat or a crush injury (possible rhabdomyolysis, which needs urgent testing)
  • Weight loss, tremor and palpitations if hyperthyroidism is behind increased muscle turnover
  • Increased thirst and urination in uncontrolled diabetes

Low urine creatinine

A low random urine creatinine, under about 20 to 50 mg/dL, usually means the urine was dilute: you had drunk a lot of fluid, were taking a diuretic, or produced a large volume of urine for another reason such as uncontrolled diabetes or diabetes insipidus. A specific gravity near 1.003 to 1.010 confirms it. In a drug-testing context a creatinine under 20 mg/dL with specific gravity under 1.003 is reported as dilute and may be treated as an attempt to defeat the test, though it is also what happens after drinking 2 liters of water in a morning. For a UACR or UPCR, a dilute sample still gives a usable ratio, but with less precision because both numerator and denominator are near their detection limits.

A low 24-hour total means less creatinine was produced or less was collected. Low muscle mass is the usual reason: older age, female sex, small body size, malnutrition, prolonged illness or bed rest, muscular dystrophy, amputation, paralysis or sarcopenia. Vegetarian and vegan diets lower excretion by 10 to 20 percent because they contain no preformed creatine or creatinine. Liver disease reduces creatine synthesis, and advanced kidney failure reduces excretion as more creatinine is broken down in the gut instead. Pregnancy expands plasma volume and raises filtration, which raises clearance but can dilute spot samples.

The commonest reason of all for a low 24-hour creatinine is an incomplete collection, a missed void or an early stop. Because the expected daily output for your age, sex and weight is predictable, laboratories use the creatinine total to judge whether the collection was complete; a total far below about 15 mg/kg (men) or 10 mg/kg (women) means the clearance, protein, calcium, oxalate or cortisol results from that collection cannot be trusted and it is repeated. Because low creatinine inflates ratios, a frail person's UACR may read 40 mg/g when true albumin excretion is normal, which is one reason an abnormal ratio is confirmed on repeat samples.

Common causes

  1. Dilute urine from high fluid intake

    Drinking large volumes in the hours before the sample, often deliberately before a drug test or on advice to 'flush the kidneys', can drop creatinine below 20 mg/dL with a specific gravity near 1.003. Repeating on a first-morning sample resolves it.

  2. Diuretics, diabetes and diabetes insipidus

    Thiazide and loop diuretics, SGLT2 inhibitors, uncontrolled high blood glucose and the inability to concentrate urine in diabetes insipidus or lithium therapy all produce large volumes of dilute urine.

  3. Low muscle mass

    Older age (excretion halves between 20 and 90), female sex, small build, malnutrition, cancer cachexia, long illness or immobility, paralysis, amputation and muscular dystrophy all lower creatinine production and 24-hour totals.

  4. Vegetarian or vegan diet

    Without meat there is no dietary creatine or creatinine, and daily excretion runs 10 to 20 percent lower; blood creatinine is also slightly lower, which affects eGFR.

  5. Advanced chronic kidney disease

    As GFR falls below about 20 mL/min, a growing share of creatinine is degraded by gut bacteria, so urinary excretion falls even though blood levels rise; clearance from a 24-hour urine then overestimates true GFR.

  6. Liver disease

    The liver makes creatine; cirrhosis reduces production, and combined with muscle wasting it gives low urine and misleadingly low blood creatinine, which is why eGFR overestimates kidney function in cirrhosis.

  7. Incomplete 24-hour collection

    A missed void, discarding the final sample or stopping early is the most frequent cause of a low total; the creatinine content is the completeness check, and a result far below the expected mg/kg for age and sex prompts a repeat.

  8. Pregnancy

    Plasma volume rises by 40 to 50 percent and GFR by about 50 percent; spot samples are often dilute, though total daily excretion is normal or slightly increased. Pregnancy-specific thresholds (UPCR 0.3 mg/mg) are used for preeclampsia.

Symptoms that can go with it

  • None from the value itself
  • Passing large volumes of pale urine and excessive thirst when the cause is dilute urine from diabetes, diabetes insipidus or diuretics
  • Weight loss, weakness and muscle thinning when low muscle mass is the reason
  • Fatigue, swelling, nausea and reduced urine output in advanced kidney disease
  • Jaundice, abdominal swelling or easy bruising when liver disease is contributing

Read it alongside

  • Urine albumin-creatinine ratio (UACR) — the main reason urine creatinine is measured; the creatinine corrects albumin for dilution, and very high or low muscle mass skews the ratio.
  • Protein in urine and the protein-creatinine ratio (UPCR) — the same correction for total protein; a ratio of 0.3 mg/mg defines significant proteinuria in pregnancy.
  • Creatinine (serum) and eGFR — kidney function is judged from the blood, not the urine; urine creatinine is needed only for clearance calculations and ratios.
  • Creatinine clearance — urine creatinine × volume ÷ serum creatinine over 24 hours; now used mainly for drug dosing, very high or low muscle mass and pregnancy.
  • Urine specific gravity and urine osmolality — tell you whether a high or low spot creatinine reflects a concentrated or dilute sample.
  • Cystatin C — a filtration marker independent of muscle mass; useful when creatinine-based results are distorted by body composition.
  • BUN and the BUN-creatinine ratio — reflect protein intake and hydration alongside kidney function.
  • Creatine kinase — very high with muscle injury, which also raises urine creatinine and can darken the urine with myoglobin.

What usually happens next

  1. Read the urine creatinine with the test it accompanies: a UACR or UPCR is interpreted as the ratio, a drug screen as valid or dilute, a 24-hour collection as complete or incomplete. The creatinine value by itself rarely needs action.
  2. If a spot sample was very dilute (under 20 mg/dL) or very concentrated, repeat with a first-morning sample taken with normal fluid intake; for UACR, first-morning samples are preferred and an abnormal result is confirmed on 2 of 3 samples over 3 to 6 months.
  3. If a 24-hour creatinine total is well below the expected 15 to 25 mg/kg for your sex and age, expect to repeat the collection with clearer instructions (discard the first morning void, then collect everything for 24 hours including the next morning's first void).
  4. In people with very high or very low muscle mass, amputation, cirrhosis or pregnancy, ask whether cystatin C or a measured clearance would give a truer picture than creatinine-based estimates.
  5. If you take creatine, eat a lot of meat, or trained hard in the 24 to 48 hours before a timed collection, mention it; a repeat on a usual diet may be suggested.

Diet, lifestyle and natural levers with evidence

What can move Urine creatinine once the cause is known. Nothing here replaces finding the cause.

Standardizing hydration and timing before the sample

Moderate evidence

Nothing needs to 'lower' or 'raise' urine creatinine; what matters is a representative sample. A first-morning void after a normal evening's fluids gives creatinine concentrations of 100 to 200 mg/dL and the most reproducible UACR, which is why KDIGO guidelines prefer it; deliberately drinking large volumes beforehand produces a dilute sample (under 20 mg/dL) that is flagged on drug tests and less precise for ratios, while prolonged fasting from fluids concentrates it. Avoid vigorous exercise, and test outside of fever, infection and menstruation, all of which raise albumin and distort the ratio.

Declaring creatine supplements and avoiding large meat meals before timed tests

Moderate evidence

Creatine monohydrate at 3 to 5 g a day raises creatinine production and excretion by roughly 10 to 20 percent without harming the kidneys in trials up to 5 years, and a 250 g cooked-meat meal raises blood creatinine by about 0.2 to 0.5 mg/dL for several hours. Neither needs to be stopped permanently, but for a 24-hour collection or clearance test, eating normally, skipping creatine for a few days and avoiding a steak dinner the night before gives a cleaner result. Vegetarians should expect values 10 to 20 percent lower than standard ranges.

Preserving muscle mass with resistance exercise and adequate protein

Moderate evidence

Low urine creatinine in older adults reflects sarcopenia, and low 24-hour creatinine excretion predicts frailty, falls and mortality in cohort studies independently of kidney function. Resistance training 2 to 3 times a week with protein intake of about 1.0 to 1.2 g per kg a day increases lean mass by 1 to 2 kg over 3 to 6 months in older adults in meta-analyses, which raises creatinine excretion correspondingly. The aim is muscle, not the number; a rising urine creatinine is simply a marker that it is working.

People with advanced chronic kidney disease should agree protein targets with their kidney team, since higher protein intake increases the kidneys' workload.

Reducing sodium to lower albuminuria (the numerator of the UACR)

Strong evidence

If the reason for the test is albumin or protein in urine, salt reduction is one of the most effective lifestyle levers. In a crossover trial in 52 people with proteinuric kidney disease on an ACE inhibitor, cutting sodium to about 2 g (5 g of salt) a day reduced proteinuria by a further 22 percent, more than adding a second blood-pressure drug, and meta-analyses in diabetes show 20 to 30 percent reductions in albuminuria. Processed foods, bread, cheese and restaurant meals supply most dietary sodium.

Weight loss when overweight, for albuminuria

Moderate evidence

A meta-analysis of 13 studies in people with overweight or obesity found that each kilogram lost was associated with about 110 mg a day less proteinuria and 1.1 mg a day less albuminuria, with the largest gains in people who started with the highest levels; bariatric surgery produces larger reductions. Weight loss also lowers blood pressure and improves glucose control, the two main drivers of albumin leakage.

Very rapid weight loss or crash dieting breaks down muscle and can transiently raise blood and urine creatinine; aim for 1 to 2 pounds a week.

When to see a clinician promptly

  • Dark, cola-colored urine with severe muscle pain and weakness after extreme exertion, heat illness, a fall with prolonged immobility or a new statin: possible rhabdomyolysis, which can cause acute kidney failure and needs same-day testing.
  • A UACR of 30 mg/g or more, or a UPCR of 150 mg/g or more, confirmed on repeat, which indicates kidney damage and needs blood pressure, glucose and kidney function reviewed.
  • A UACR above 300 mg/g or a UPCR above 3,500 mg/g (3.5 mg/mg), or protein in urine with swelling of the legs or around the eyes, foamy urine or rapidly rising blood creatinine, which needs prompt nephrology assessment.
  • In pregnancy, a UPCR of 0.3 mg/mg or more with blood pressure of 140/90 or higher, headache, visual disturbance or upper abdominal pain: possible preeclampsia, which is an emergency.
  • Passing very large volumes of dilute urine with relentless thirst, especially with weight loss or after a head injury or lithium treatment, which suggests uncontrolled diabetes or diabetes insipidus.
  • A fall in muscle mass or unexplained weight loss reflected in a low urine creatinine, which deserves a check for malnutrition, thyroid disease, cancer or liver disease.

Frequently asked questions

What is the normal range for urine creatinine?

On a random (spot) sample roughly 20 to 300 mg/dL, with first-morning samples typically 100 to 200 mg/dL; the value depends mostly on how dilute the urine is. On a 24-hour collection, about 1,000 to 2,000 mg a day in men and 600 to 1,800 mg a day in women, or 14 to 26 and 11 to 20 mg per kilogram of body weight. Ranges vary between laboratories and fall with age as muscle mass declines.

What does a random urine creatinine test show?

By itself, mainly how concentrated the sample is. Its real purpose is to serve as the denominator for ratios: dividing urine albumin or protein by urine creatinine corrects for dilution so that a single sample estimates a day's excretion. A random urine creatinine is also used to judge whether a drug-test specimen is genuine and undiluted. It does not measure kidney function; that comes from blood creatinine and eGFR.

What does high creatinine in urine mean?

Usually that the urine was concentrated, as in a first-morning sample or after a period without fluids, or that you have a lot of muscle, eat a lot of meat or take creatine. It is not a sign of kidney disease. A very high value after extreme exercise or injury with muscle pain and dark urine should prompt a check for rhabdomyolysis. In a ratio such as UACR, a high creatinine lowers the result, so early albuminuria can be under-called in muscular people.

What does low urine creatinine mean?

On a spot sample, dilute urine from drinking a lot, diuretics or conditions that produce large urine volumes; under 20 mg/dL is flagged as dilute on drug tests. On a 24-hour collection, low muscle mass (age, small build, illness, amputation), a vegetarian diet, advanced kidney or liver disease, or most often an incomplete collection. Because a low creatinine inflates ratios, an abnormal UACR in a frail or elderly person is confirmed on repeat samples before conclusions are drawn.

Why is urine creatinine used in the albumin-creatinine ratio?

Because the amount of creatinine you excrete each day is nearly constant for you (around 1 g in an average adult), while the concentration of everything in urine swings with how much you drink. Dividing albumin by creatinine cancels out the dilution, so a spot UACR of 30 mg/g approximates 30 mg of albumin a day. The assumption of 1 g of creatinine a day is the ratio's weakness: it under-estimates albuminuria in very muscular people and over-estimates it in people with little muscle.

Can drinking lots of water affect urine creatinine?

Yes, strongly, on a random sample: a large fluid intake in the preceding hours can take creatinine from 150 mg/dL down to under 20 mg/dL. It does not change the total you excrete over a day, so 24-hour results are unaffected, and ratio tests still work, though less precisely. For drug tests, a dilute specimen may have to be repeated under observed conditions; for UACR, a first-morning sample with normal fluids is preferred.

Does creatine supplementation raise urine creatinine, and is that harmful?

It raises it, typically by 10 to 20 percent, because creatine is converted to creatinine at a steady rate and a bigger muscle creatine pool makes more. Blood creatinine rises slightly too, which can make an eGFR look a little lower. Trials up to 5 years in healthy people have not shown kidney harm from standard doses of 3 to 5 g a day. Tell your clinician you take it, and consider pausing for a few days before kidney tests or a timed collection; cystatin C is an alternative marker unaffected by creatine.

How do I know if my 24-hour urine collection was complete?

By the creatinine total. Expected excretion is roughly 20 to 25 mg per kg of body weight a day in men and 15 to 20 in women under 50, falling to about 10 to 15 mg/kg over 70. If your total is far below that, a void was probably missed and the collection is repeated. The correct method is to discard the first morning urine, note the time, collect every drop for 24 hours including the next morning's first void, and keep the container cool.

References

  1. Creatinine test. MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine (2023)View source
  2. Microalbumin creatinine ratio. MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine (2023)View source
  3. Creatinine test. Mayo Clinic (2023)View source
  4. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2024 clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and management of chronic kidney disease. Kidney International (2024)
  5. Evaluation of the renal patient. Merck Manual Professional Version (2024)
  6. Levey AS, Inker LA. Assessment of glomerular filtration rate in health and disease: a state of the art review. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics (2017)
  7. Ginsberg JM, Chang BS, Matarese RA, Garella S. Use of single voided urine samples to estimate quantitative proteinuria. New England Journal of Medicine (1983)
  8. Miller WG, Bruns DE, Hortin GL, et al.. Current issues in measurement and reporting of urinary albumin excretion. Clinical Chemistry (2009)
  9. Heymsfield SB, Arteaga C, McManus C, Smith J, Moffitt S. Measurement of muscle mass in humans: validity of the 24-hour urinary creatinine method. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (1983)
  10. Cook JD, Caplan YH, LoDico CP, Bush DM. The characterization of human urine for specimen validity determination in workplace drug testing: a review. Journal of Analytical Toxicology (2000)
  11. Preiss DJ, Godber IM, Lamb EJ, Dalton RN, Gunn IR. The influence of a cooked-meat meal on estimated glomerular filtration rate. Annals of Clinical Biochemistry (2007)
  12. Slagman MC, Waanders F, Hemmelder MH, et al.. Moderate dietary sodium restriction added to angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition compared with dual blockade in lowering proteinuria and blood pressure: randomised controlled trial. BMJ (2011)
  13. Afshinnia F, Wilt TJ, Duval S, Esmaeili A, Ibrahim HN. Weight loss and proteinuria: systematic review of clinical trials and comparative cohorts. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation (2010)

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